ABSTRACT:  

Experiential learning was used as a technique to teach nutrition assessment at the University of Zimbabwe, whereby, a class project augmented lectures.  The purpose of the class project was to demonstrate how information from lectures could be used to assess the University's food environment and its ability to allow people on campus to meet Food Guide Pyramid recommendations.  The campus food environment was defined as (a) sources of food for staff and faculty, (b) sources of food for students, (c) staff and faculty food intake, and (d) student food intake.  Students designed their class projects based on lectures, which systematically introduced them to basic concepts of survey research methodology, questionnaire development, interviewing techniques, data analysis, and presentation.  The students collected demographic, dietary, and nutrition knowledge data.  Diet Analysis, Version 4 was used and modified using the Food Composition Table for Use in Africa, the Composition of Foods Commonly Eaten in East Africa, Nutritive Value of Foods of Zimbabwe, and Indigenous and Traditional Foods in Zimbabwe.  This project allowed students to see for the first time nutrient breakdowns of their most common foods.  Challenging aspects of using computer hardware, nutrient analysis software and modifying it to include limited local African food composition data are presented.  Data collected by the students is presented to demonstrate how nutrition assessment techniques can be taught through a practical experience.

Key Words:    nutrition, dietary assessment, experiential learning

 

FRENCH

FORMATION PRATIQUE:  UTILISATION D'UN COURS DE FORMATION SUR LA NUTRITION POUR LA COLLECTE DES DONNEES SUR LES MODELES ALIMENTAIRES DU CAMPUS DE L'UNIVERSITE DU ZIMBABWE

NOTE DE SYNTHESE

La technique de la formation pratique est utilisée pour enseigner l'évaluation du régime alimentaire à l'Université du Zimbabwe.  Cette expérience pratique a été réalisée à travers un projet de classe qui a donné des cours sur ce sujet.  L'objectif du projet de classe est de démontrer comment les informations recueillies au cours des sessions de formation peuvent être utilisées dans l'appréciation de l'environnement nutritionnel de l'Université.  Ces informations peuvent permettre également à l'institution universitaire d'évaluer sa capacité à permettre aux personnes vivant sur le campus à répondre aux recommandations du guide sur la pyramide alimentaire.  L'environnement nutritionnel a été défini comme suit : (a) les sources alimentaires pour le personnel et la faculté, (b) les sources alimentaires pour les étudiants, (c) la consommation alimentaire de la faculté et, (d) la consommation alimentaire des étudiants.  Les étudiants ont organisé leur projet de classe en se basant sur les cours, qui les ont systématiquement introduits aux concepts de base de la méthodologie d'une étude de recherche, l'élaboration des questionnaires, les techniques d'entrevue, d'analyse des données et de la présentation.  Les étudiants ont recueilli des données démographiques, diététiques et nutritionnelles.  L'analyse du régime alimentaire, Version 4 a été utilisée et modifiée en se servant du tableau de la composition du régime alimentaire d'Afrique, de la composition des denrées alimentaires communément consommées en Afrique de l'Est, de la valeur nutritive des aliments du Zimbabwe et des produits alimentaires locaux et traditionnels du Zimbabwe.  Ce projet a permis aux étudiants de constater pour la première fois les défaillances nutritives de leurs régime alimentaire de base.  Les problèmes que posent l'utilisation de l'ordinateur, du logiciel d'analyse des matières nutritives et sa modification afin d'inclure des données limitées sur la composition des produits alimentaires locaux d'Afrique ont été soulevés.  Les données recueillies par les étudiants sont présentées afin de démontrer que les techniques d'évaluation des produits alimentaires peuvent être enseignées à travers une formation pratique.

Mots-clés:        nutrition, évaluation du régime alimentaire, formation pratique

 

INTRODUCTION

A model for experiential learning was applied to teach nutrition at the University of Zimbabwe [1].  The instructors especially wanted to observe the challenges of replicating a First World teaching model in a Third World environment, whereby, a class project augmented lectures.  This paper describes the experience in Zimbabwe and lessons learned.

The course was held in the Department of Technical Education in the Faculty of Education at the University of Zimbabwe.  This department offers a Bachelor in Education (BEd) degree, which is acquired upon completing a very intense two-year program.  All of the students are high school teachers on leave from their jobs while pursuing the BEd. Programme.

The Department of Technical Education is an interesting mix of several programs: home economics, building technology, metal technology, wood technology, technical graphics and design, and agriculture.   Students specialize in one field of study.  There were 3 home economics instructors: one for Family Studies, one for Clothing and Textiles, and one for Food Technology and Nutrition.  For this project, the nutrition instructor and a visiting Fulbright Senior Scholar team-taught the 10-hour course, which included two 4-hour blocks for lecture and a two-hour practical session each week.

Twenty-five students were enrolled in the nutrition course.  After completing high school and passing an exam, students may attend a teachers' college for two years.  They earn teaching certificates in specific disciplines, which allow them to teach in primary or secondary schools.  All of the students enrolled in the nutrition course were home economics teachers.  However, most of them did not teach foods and utrition.  They taught clothing and textiles.  Apparently very few home economics teachers in Zimbabwe choose the nutrition field as their speciality because many of the secondary schools do not have the cooking or lab facilities required for teaching foods and nutrition.

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of the class project was to demonstrate how information from lectures could be used to assess the University's food environment and its ability to allow people on campus to meet Food Guide Pyramid recommendations.  It was not the lecturers' intent to conduct a research study, but rather to provide students an opportunity to practice and learn nutrition assessment techniques through a practical experience. 

The twenty-five students were divided into four groups, and with the lecturers, decided how they would define food environment and what would be their project objectives.  The campus food environment was defined as sources of food for lecturers and staff; sources of food for students; lecturers and staff food intake; and student food intake.  For those students charged with examining sources of food on the campus, their project objectives included to (1) determine the number of food outlets on campus and (2) determine whether they provided adequate, safe, nutritious meals.  For those students charged with examining food intake on campus, their project objectives included to (1) determine food and nutrient intake on campus and (2) identify various factors that influence food intake.

Using experiential learning theory, concrete experience became the basis for nutrition lectures, demonstrations in class, and the computer lab [2-3].  Reflective observation was based on class discussions.  Abstract conceptualization meant the students used the information learned in class to design and develop their projects.  The students realized active experimentation when they carried out their projects, presented results and were evaluated.

Class lectures focused on basic nutrition theory and practice.  Project development involved systematically introducing students to basic concepts of survey research methodology, questionnaire development, interviewing techniques, data analysis, and presentation.  While this was not a difficult process, the challenge especially for the visiting professor was teaching students without textbooks.  Students are essentially told to try and find books at the library or purchase books somewhere if possible.  Books are expensive and those in the library may be old or missing.  To minimize the expense and wear and tear on the Department Xerox machine the instructors made four copies of each lecture for the groups to share.  Students used the information from these lectures to design their class projects.

A lecture on nutrition assessment methods, such as 24-hour recall and record, food frequency, RDAs, Food Guide Pyramid and the US Dietary Guidelines [4], was used to design their questionnaires.  Some of the practical sessions were used to practice conducting interviews and accurately completing questionnaires.

Challenges for Data Collection and Outcomes

Initially the students had very optimistic expectations for data collection.  They expected to collect data on a random sample of 64 students and 20 lecturers and staff.  An inventory of all food outlets (dining halls, tuck or snack shops, fast food, open market) was planned to identify sources of food on campus.  Instead, Group 1 sampled 6 food outlets.  Group 3 identified 18 food outlets on campus, but only 13 agreed to participate in their survey.  Group 2 interviewed 18 non-home economics students, including 8 females, 10 males, ranging in ages between 21 and 41 years, and half of them living on campus. Group 4 interviewed 15 lecturers and staff; including 10 males and 5 females, 7 of which were lecturers. All ranged in ages 20-50 and older, and residing off campus.   

 Several events during the semester quickly altered project plans.  Two strikes, a riot, and ongoing strife on the campus shortened the semester by three weeks.  Original plans to introduce the students to descriptive statistics and analysis of the full 24-hour recall also had to be curtailed.  Combined with the challenges of using computers as described below, the students were limited in their data collection and how they analyzed their findings.  Those students who collected 24-hour recalls were only able to analyze the lunch meals.  Therefore, data collection outcomes are presented below to simply demonstrate what was done given the limited resources and unforeseen circumstances.  These findings are strictly descriptive as time and resource constraints prevented the class from doing statistical analyses.  

Group 1, sources of food on campus for lecturers and staff, designed an instrument to capture information on the types of food outlets, hours of operation, their cooking methods, most popular foods served, storage facilities, number of people served, and food prices.  The questionnaire designed by Group 2, food intake of students, focused on specific demographics, the frequency of meals per day, amount of money spent on food per day, nutrition knowledge, and a 24-hour dietary recall.  Group 3, sources of food on campus for students, collected information similar to Group 1 plus information on the outlet manager's nutrition knowledge.  Group 4, food intake of teachers and staff, designed a questionnaire to collect specific demographics and a 24-hour dietary recall.

 Challenges of Using Computers and Nutrient Analysis Software

A four-hour computer laboratory also was taught.  This laboratory session started out as a two-hour period, but was expanded because most of the students were not computer literate.  A significant amount of time was spent getting the students used to the keyboard and Windows applications.  Additionally, a lot of time initially was spent making arrangements for the students to have access to computers.  Although the arrangements were made eventually with one of the University computer laboratories for the students to use state-of-the-art computers, there were no printers available.  The solution to this problem was to spend working dinner sessions at the Fulbright professor's apartment, where a laptop and printer were available.

One of the most difficult challenges was using nutrient analysis software and modifying it to include local African foods.  Diet Analysis+, Version 4 was used as the software package [5].  African food composition data available to the group at the time was the Food Composition Table for Use in Africa [6], the Composition of Foods Commonly Eaten in East Africa [7], Nutritive Value of Foods in Zimbabwe [8], and Indigenous Traditional Foods in Zimbabwe [9].  Using these references, some indigenous foods were added to the software database, such as mealie meal porridge (sadza), dried fish (matemba), termites, catepillars, locust, pumpkin leaves and rape (leafy green vegetable).  For other Zimbabwe foods similar to foods in the database, substitutions were used where appropriate.  For example, Greek meat pie in the database substituted for Zimbabwe meat pie.  Tripe was the only food difficult to find.  Data on raw tripe was found, but the only cooked food in the database close to a substitution was turkey gizzards, which was used.   In the final analysis, although some of the food composition data was old or did not fit, these references allowed the students to see for the first time nutrient breakdowns of their most common foods.

Evaluating the Class Project 

Each group presented their findings the last week of class.  Group presentations were at least 30 minutes and a written report was required per group.  Only 15 per cent of the student's grade was allowed for the class project because University regulations required the final exam to provide 70% of the final grade.  Three other assessment tests at 5% each also were part of the grade.

Grading criteria for both the group report and the oral presentation included creativity, descriptive narrative, quantitative analysis, and group coordination.  A likert scale with ratings of excellent, good, fair and poor was used.  Each group was videotaped in the University recording studio and their presentations evaluated by the course instructors, one other faculty member, and fellow classmates.

RESULTS

Group 1, food sources for lecturers and staff, found that the most frequented outlet for lecturers and staff was the University canteen, which served about 150-200 people a day.  Two places served lecturers and staff only; the rest served a mix of staff, lecturers and students.  Most of the better sources of food were privately owned food companies, including the University canteen.  Most employees had attended at least one nutrition course.  Roasting and frying were the most popular cooking methods.  All establishments had storage facilities including deep freezers and refrigerators.  Only two food establishments served special diets: diabetic and low fat diets. 

Group 2, food intake by students, found that 16 students either received a total payout (government allowance) or payout plus money from parents, two relied on parents or a spouse.  Fifteen students received $12,000-15,000Z per semester, the others $16,000-24,000Z.  Money influenced the type of food that most students chose; only three chose food according to taste.  This is not surprising because reliable sources of money were an ongoing problem for many students.  Four students spent $20Z or less a day on lunch; 8 spent $50Z-80Z; and two spent $120Z.  At the time of the study, $1US = $55Z-$75Z depending on where you exchanged money.  Six students ate breakfast; 8 had morning tea; 15 ate lunch; one had afternoon tea; 16 had supper; and half snacked between meals.  Half said they had nutrition knowledge and when tested only three students had problems placing the foods in the correct pyramid groups.  Three out of 18 students usually did not eat lunch; 13 bought lunch, two carried packed lunch; and none were on special diets.  On average and according to the Recommended Dietary Intake, male students consumed about 50 per cent of the recommended calories for lunch; female students consumed about 56 percent (Table 1).

Group 3, food sources for students, found that five places served 500 or less people a day; three served 500-1,000; 2 served 1,000-2,000; and two places had no idea how many students they served.  Seven outlets purchased food wholesale; 7 purchased food from the Mbare open market; four purchased food from supermarkets.  Nine places replenished their supplies daily; two did so on a weekly basis; and two as needed.  Eleven had cold rooms or refrigerators; 5 had deep freezers; and two had food warmers.  Purchasing patterns and storage capabilities were important issues for the students because they had several food safety concerns.  Even though about half of the managers had attended nutrition courses when tested, none could match protein to correct food sources; two correctly matched carbohydrates; and five matched fat.  Most of the food places provided enough grains and meat.  Eggs and milk were not offered in most outlets because of limited storage facilities; only 3 tuck shops sold milk, which students used mostly for tea.  Four places offered vegetables and fruit was offered at only one place. The most popular cooking method was frying with 10 places offering fried food; 6 places primarily stewed food; 5 places prepared special diets (such as for vegetarian, ulcer, and others upon request). 

Group 4, food intake by lecturers and staff, found that four had mid-morning tea, 14 ate breakfast, 14 ate lunch, two had afternoon tea, and 13 ate supper.  Four people usually brought lunch to campus; 10 bought lunches on campus; and one did not eat lunch.  On average and assuming one-third of the Recommended Dietary Intake, male lecturers and staff consumed about 71 percent of the recommended calories for lunch; female lecturers and staff consumed about 84 percent (Table 2).  When asked about influences on food habits, 8 stated money, 5 stated health, 8 stated taste, 7 named time and two gave religious reasons.  When tested on their nutrition knowledge of a balanced meal, 8 chose rice, meat, green vegetables; three chose sadza and meat; two chose potatoes and green vegetables; and two chose none of the above.  They all gave very good reasons for their choices, for example, vegetarians had no option from the list of choices provided, and some stated the meals were not balanced, but most acknowledged that the first option was more balanced than the rest. 

Although only lunch intake was analyzed, some interesting observations were made.  Ten people consumed more than the recommended level of sweets (pastries and empty calorie foods, such as colas) during their lunch meal. People consumed a lot of colas during lunch and this could account for this finding.  Only one person consumed one serving of a dairy product.  A number of people had milk with their tea, but this was far less than one serving.  The high cost of dairy products in Zimbabwe could be the reason.  Most people did not eat meat at lunch time or had less than adequate servings.  Fruit was not eaten at lunch.  Even though relatively affordable, many people did not emphasize fruit's importance in the diet and viewed it as a luxury.  Nine people did not eat any vegetables with lunch and 5 people had less than adequate servings.  Eight people had less than adequate servings of grains; four did not eat any; and two had adequate servings.

DISCUSSION

This class project proved to be a useful tool for integrating experiential learning into the study of basic nutrition.  Using this model created a highly participatory course.  Although many hurdles had to be overcome, the students responded positively to the teaching approach coupled with the subject matter.  Access to adequate, safe food is not taken for granted in Zimbabwe because food is expensive and the majority of the population has limited resources.  Consequently, the students especially were interested in what and how much people ate coupled with the amount they could spend on food, cleanliness and cooking practices of food establishments, and people's nutrition attitudes and knowledge. They constructed questionnaires based on personal experience.  Anecdotally, they knew people in Zimbabwe were hungry and to quantify even one meal of food intake was a tremendous lesson learned.  They were surprised to see how students consumed inadequate food at lunch. Typically you could observe them eating only two large buns (bread) and a cola for lunch.  While food composition data and quantifying nutrient intake were relatively new concepts for this group of students, weighing these values against actual food intake became very relevant to them.  

These students also were genuinely interested in improving the University's food environment.  Again, their personal experiences on campus created an interest in food safety and the types of food preparation techniques needed to promote healthy eating.  By the end of the project, their goal was to approach the University administration to plan a campus-wide annual nutrition and food safety event.  These plans were thwarted, however, because political and academic problems continue to plague the University.  More promising is the nutrition lecturer's efforts to continue to incorporate aspects of a class project into her courses.

CONCLUSION

Not only did experiential learning link theory to practical application, it required the students to think more critically about the influence of food and nutrition on their lives.  This project was particularly useful in teaching secondary school teachers, who mostly did not teach nutrition at their schools, how to include nutrition into their classes.  The project highlighted several issues for the lecturers and the students.  First, it demonstrated to the students just how little food people consume in Zimbabwe.   Second, the students' interests in food and nutrition and sharing information with their respective communities were heightened.  Third, the project demonstrated to the lecturers the need to incorporate computer-based curricula into nutrition courses taught at the university. Lastly, to effectively teach students, African university programs need access to up-to-date nutrition information and food composition data.

 

 Table 1.  Analysis of lunch intake by students

* Data is presented for N = 15; 3 respondents out of 18 interviewed did not eat lunch

** Only intake from lunch was analyzed; one-third Recommended intake assumed.  Full day's intake in parentheses.

Table 2.  Analysis of lunch intake by lecturers and staff

* Data is presented for N = 14; 1 respondent out of 15 interviewed did not eat lunch

** Only intake from lunch was analyzed; one-third Recommended intake assumed.  Full day's intake in parentheses.

  

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